Scientists confirm quantum response to magnetism in cells
University of Tokyo scientists observe predicted quantum biochemical effects on cells.
11 January, 2021
Credit: Dan-Cristian Pădureț/Unsplash
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<p>We know at this point that there are species that can navigate using the Earth's magnetic field. <a href="https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/quantum-bird-navigation" target="_self">Birds</a> use this ability in their long-distance migrations, and the list of such species keeps getting longer, now including mole rats, turtles, lobsters, and even <a href="https://bigthink.com/surprising-science/magnetic-dog" target="_self">dogs</a>. But exactly <em>how</em> they can do this remains unclear.</p><p>Scientists have for the first time observed changes in magnetism prompting a biomechanical reaction in cells. And if that's not cool enough, the cells involved in the research were human cells, lending support to <a href="https://bigthink.com/mind-brain/new-evidence-for-a-human-magnetic-sense-that-lets-your-brain-detect-the-earths-magnetic-field-2632495608" target="_self">theories</a> that we ourselves may have what it takes to get around using the planet's magnetic field.</p><p>The research is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/118/3/e2018043118" target="_blank">PNAS</a>.</p>
Radical pairs
<p>The phenomenon observed by scientists from the University of Tokyo matched the predictions of a theory put forward in 1975 by <a href="https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/how-birds-see-magnetic-fields-an-interview-with-klaus-schulten" target="_blank">Klaus Schulten</a> of the Max Planck Institute. Schulten proposed the mechanism through which even a very weak magnetic field—such as our planet's—could influence chemical reactions in their cells, allowing birds to perceive magnetic lines and navigate as they seem to do.</p><p>Shulten's idea had to do with radical pairs. A radical is a molecule with an odd number of electrons. When two such electrons belonging to different molecules become entangled, they form a radical pair. Since there's no physical connection between the electrons, their short-lived relationship belongs in the realm of quantum mechanics.</p><p>Brief as their association is, it's long enough to affect their molecules' chemical reactions. The entangled electrons can either spin exactly in sync with each other, or exactly opposite each other. In the former case, chemical reactions are slow. In the latter case, they're faster.</p><img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTQzNDcxNi9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzNzMxNDc0N30.fvjXhn5uNKgbISXfMjj9J6-PIs0EgwqXA1X0PTPa7cc/img.jpg?width=980" id="52415" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="d675ae83cf35b04342cd7d75b65ba0b0" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-width="1234" data-height="1440" />Researchers Jonathan Woodward and Noboru Ikeya in their lab
Credit: © Xu Tao, CC BY-SA
Cryptochromes and flavins
<p>Previous research has revealed that certain animal cells contain <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptochrome" target="_blank">cryptochromes</a>, proteins that are sensitive to magnetic fields. There is a subset of these called "<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavin_group" target="_blank">flavins</a>," molecules that glow, or autofluoresce, when exposed to blue light. The researchers worked with human HeLa cells (human cervical cancer cells), because they're rich in flavins. That makes them of special interest because it appears that geomagnetic navigation is <a href="https://jeb.biologists.org/content/204/19/3295" target="_blank">light-sensitive</a>.</p><p>When hit with blue light, flavins either glow or produce radical pairs — what happens is a balancing act in which the slower the spin of the pairs, the fewer molecules are unoccupied and available to fluoresce.</p><img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTQzNDcyMC9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY3MTIxMTkyNX0.jkJMYwj6Sbpmy6Lj4vLIc6IMXSLoBDeDC6ixhTdn-Ro/img.jpg?width=980" id="8f1c0" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="8b639aedfc9b1a5f3a77159fe1ab7d82" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-width="1200" data-height="402" />HeLa cells (left), showing fluorescence caused by blue light (center), closeup of fluorescence (right)
Credit: © Ikeya and Woodward, CC BY, originally published in PNAS DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2018043118
The experiment
<p>For the experiment, the HeLa cells were irradiated with blue light for about 40 seconds, causing them to fluoresce. The researchers' expectations were that this fluorescent light resulted in the generation of radical pairs.</p><p>Since magnetism can affect the spin of electrons, every four seconds the scientists swept a magnet over the cells. They observed that their fluorescence dimmed by about 3.5 percen each time they did this, as shown in the image at the beginning of this article.</p><p>Their interpretation is that the presence of the magnet caused the electrons in the radical pairs to align, slowing down chemical reactions in the cell so that there were fewer molecules available for producing fluorescence.</p><p>The short version: The magnet caused a quantum change in the radical pairs that suppressed the flavin's ability to fluoresce.</p><p>The University of Tokyo's <a href="http://gpes.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/faculty-staff/measurement-and-evaluation/jonathan-r-woodward.html" target="_blank">Jonathan Woodward</a>, who authored the study with doctoral student Noboru Ikeya, <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/focus/en/press/z0508_00158.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">explains</a> what's so exciting about the experiment:</p><p style="margin-left: 20px;">"The joyous thing about this research is to see that the relationship between the spins of two individual electrons can have a major effect on biology."</p><p>He notes, "We've not modified or added anything to these cells. We think we have extremely strong evidence that we've observed a purely quantum mechanical process affecting chemical activity at the cellular level."</p>
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Isolated island group is now one of the world's largest animal sanctuaries
One of the world's most isolated island groups has just been made one of the world's largest ocean reserves.
18 November, 2020
Credit: RICHARD A. BROOKS/AFP via Getty Images)
- The small island group of Tristan da Cunha has created one of the world's largest ocean sanctuaries.
- Neither fishing nor extractive activities will be allowed in the area, which is three times the size of the United Kingdom.
- Animals protected by this zone include penguins, sharks, and many seabirds.
Tristan da Cunha, a group of volcanic islands with a mere 245 permanent residents situated between South Africa and Argentina in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, has recently become one of the largest wildlife sanctuaries on the planet. The marine protection zone is three times the size of the United Kingdom and will protect a wide variety of animal species and prevent unsustainable fishing and <a href="https://apnews.com/article/tristan-da-cunha-rockhopper-penguins-39c5e5d74120972e871327b04f823114" target="_blank">extraction operations</a>.
Tristan da where now?
<p> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" target="_blank">Tristan da Cunha</a> is a British Overseas Territory consisting of an archipelago in the south Atlantic. The titular island is the largest in the group at about 100 square kilometers. Those hoping to visit will have to get there by a week-long boat ride from Cape Town. The island's government gleefully notes that it takes longer to get there than it takes astronauts to get to the Moon. <br> <br> The marine protection zone will cover 627,247 square kilometers (over 242,000 miles) of the ocean around the islands. It will be the "gold standard" in ocean conservation, with neither fishing nor other extractive activities allowed, often referred to as "no-take." It will be the largest no-take zone in the Atlantic, and the fourth largest anywhere in the world. <br> <br> The zone includes small areas just off the inhabited islands in which sustainable fishing will be allowed, but these areas are a small fraction of the no-take area's size. Given the historical reliance of the island's economy on the sea, this consideration is quite understandable. <br> <br> These protected areas join many others covered by the United Kingdoms' <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-blue-belt-programme" target="_blank">Blue Belt Programme</a> of marine protection, which aims to preserve 30 percent of the world's oceans by 2030. </p><iframe width="730" height="430" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/yObCpYLLJSk" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe><p> <strong><br> </strong>In a <a href="https://www.tristandc.com/government/news-2020-11-12-mpzgov13nov2020.php" target="_blank">press release</a> issued by the government of Tristan da Cunha, the chief executive of the <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/" target="_blank">Royal Society for the Protection of Birds</a>, Beccy Speight, left no doubt as to the environmental significance of this protection zone:</p><p style="margin-left: 20px;">"This is a story two decades in the making, starting with the RSPB and Government of Tristan da Cunha commencing a conservation partnership, and culminating in the creation of this globally important protected area," Speight said. "The waters that surround this remote UK Overseas Territory are some of the richest in the world. Tens of millions of seabirds soar above the waves, penguins and seals cram onto the beaches, threatened sharks breed offshore and mysterious whales feed in the deep-water canyons. From today, we can say all of this is protected."</p><p>Speight added that in 2020, the need for these protections is greater than ever. "While Tristan da Cunha may be far away in distance it is still close to our hearts and protecting it is still the UK's responsibility. Closer to home, the crisis facing nature is also huge. So huge that our wellbeing, our economic future, and our very survival depend on the choices we make now about the natural world." Speight also used the statement to issue a call to action. "We need politicians to emulate the leadership of this small community to help us build the world we all want to live in. We hope today's fantastic announcement is the first of many more that help revive our world."</p><p>For the less romantic, there are also human-centered reasons why we ought to protect the oceans. A recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/content/117/45/28134" target="_blank">study</a> suggests that keeping fishing boats out of a mere five percent of the ocean can raise catches everywhere else by a 20 percent. As it turns out, protecting the planet we live on provides benefits.<br></p>
Most important of all, what animals are protected by this?
<p> The now protected fish that inhabit the waters are a vital food source for many kinds of animals, all of which will benefit from not having to share their food supply with humans. </p><p>The vast area is home to many species of whales, sharks, and seals. Endangered species of albatross also drop by. Many birds that live on the islands and cannot be found elsewhere, such as the Wilkins bunting and the Inaccessible rail, also stand to benefit from the new protections. </p><p>Most adorable of all, the endangered northern <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockhopper_penguin" target="_blank">rockhopper penguins</a> make a home on one of the archipelago islands. With luck, they may not be endangered much longer. </p>
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Crows are self-aware just like us, says new study
Crows have their own version of the human cerebral cortex.
29 September, 2020
Credit: Amarnath Tade/ Unsplash
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<p>It's no surprise that <a href="https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/browse/taxonomy/Corvidae" target="_blank">corvids</a> — the "crow family" of birds that also includes ravens, jays, magpies, and nutcrackers — are smart. They <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/crows-can-remember-tool-shapes-recreate-them-cumulative-cultural-evolution" target="_blank">use tools</a>, recognize faces, <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-31604026" target="_blank">leave gifts</a> for people they like, and there's even a <a href="https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=729558684479564" target="_blank">video on Facebook</a> showing a crow nudging a stubborn little hedgehog out of traffic. Corvids will also <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103049" target="_blank">drop rocks</a> into water to push floating food their way.</p><p>What is perhaps surprising is what the authors of a new study published last week in the journal <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/369/6511/1626" target="_blank">Science</a> have found: Crows are capable of thinking about their own thoughts as they work out problems. This is a level of self-awareness previously believed to signify the kind of higher intelligence that only humans and possibly a few other mammals possess. A crow knows what a crow knows, and if this brings the word <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/sentience" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">sentience</a> to your mind, you may be right.</p>
Action-packed pallia
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNDQ0NzkyMS9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYxNzk1NzM1OH0.Tjb3zulFW2gwhteR124F9HGbmdnCqNqQFOBQouieTJ8/img.png?width=980" id="2bbc9" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="2907e4035e553565f4446e968ee73d92" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-width="980" data-height="551" />Credit: Neoplantski/Alexey Pushkin/Shutterstock/Big Think
<p>It's long been assumed that higher intellectual functioning is strictly the product of a layered cerebral cortex. But bird brains are different. The authors of the study found crows' unlayered but neuron-dense <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallium_(neuroanatomy)" target="_blank">pallium</a> may play a similar role for the avians. Supporting this possibility, <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.abc5534" target="_blank">another study</a> published last week in Science finds that the neuroanatomy of pigeons and barn owls may also support higher intelligence.</p><p>"It has been a good week for bird brains!" crow expert John Marzluff of the University of Washington <a href="https://www.statnews.com/2020/09/24/crows-possess-higher-intelligence-long-thought-primarily-human/?utm_content=buffer87cd6&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter&utm_campaign=twitter_organic" target="_blank">tells Stat</a>. (He was not involved in either study.)</p><p>Corvids are known to be as mentally capable as monkeys and great apes. However, bird neurons are so much smaller that their palliums actually contain more of them than would be found in an equivalent-sized primate cortex. This may constitute a clue regarding their expansive mental capabilities.</p><p>In any event, there appears to be a general correspondence between the number of neurons an animal has in its pallium and its intelligence, says <a href="http://www.suzanaherculanohouzel.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Suzana Herculano-Houzel</a> in her <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/369/6511/1567" target="_blank">commentary</a> on both new studies for Science. Humans, she says, sit "satisfyingly" atop this comparative chart, having even more neurons there than elephants, despite our much smaller body size. It's estimated that crow brains have about 1.5 billion neurons.</p>Fun with Ozzie and Glenn
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNDQ0Njk2MS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYxMzY4Njc2MX0.ZgpsPMCK6qOj2o0kErvVPjdua1EnMCIwCuHHGrb3LiY/img.jpg?width=980" id="acbeb" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="2e286fecbb228a5ca8aa26fcd19f95a2" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="two crows in a tree" data-width="1440" data-height="960" />Ozzie and Glenn not pictured
Credit: narubono/Unsplash
<p>The kind of higher intelligence crows exhibited in the new research is similar to the way we solve problems. We catalog relevant knowledge and then explore different combinations of what we know to arrive at an action or solution.</p><p>The researchers, led by neurobiologist <a href="https://homepages.uni-tuebingen.de/andreas.nieder/" target="_blank">Andreas Nieder</a> of the University of Tübingen in Germany, trained two carrion crows (<em>Corvus corone</em>), Ozzie and Glenn.</p><p>The crows were trained to watch for a flash — which didn't always appear — and then peck at a red or blue target to register whether or not a flash of light was seen. Ozzie and Glenn were also taught to understand a changing "rule key" that specified whether red or blue signified the presence of a flash with the other color signifying that no flash occurred.</p><p>In each round of a test, after a flash did or didn't appear, the crows were presented a rule key describing the current meaning of the red and blue targets, after which they pecked their response.</p><p>This sequence prevented the crows from simply rehearsing their response on auto-pilot, so to speak. In each test, they had to take the entire process from the top, seeing a flash or no flash, and then figuring out which target to peck.</p><p>As all this occurred, the researchers monitored their neuronal activity. When Ozzie or Glenn saw a flash, sensory neurons fired and then stopped as the bird worked out which target to peck. When there was no flash, no firing of the sensory neurons was observed before the crow paused to figure out the correct target.</p><p>Nieder's interpretation of this sequence is that Ozzie or Glenn had to see or not see a flash, deliberately note that there had or hadn't been a flash — exhibiting self-awareness of what had just been experienced — and then, in a few moments, connect that recollection to their knowledge of the current rule key before pecking the correct target.</p><p>During those few moments after the sensory neuron activity had died down, Nieder reported activity among a large population of neurons as the crows put the pieces together preparing to report what they'd seen. Among the busy areas in the crows' brains during this phase of the sequence was, not surprisingly, the pallium.</p><p>Overall, the study may eliminate the layered cerebral cortex as a requirement for higher intelligence. As we learn more about the intelligence of crows, we can at least say with some certainty that it would be wise to avoid <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/26/science/26crow.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">angering one</a>.</p>
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Woodpecker wars are intense and even draw a crowd
Acorn woodpecker battles over prized territory are serious business.
08 September, 2020
Credit: Steve Byland/Shutterstock
- Acorn woodpeckers are highly socialized birds who are, let's say, unusual.
- Small teams of acorn woodpeckers battle for days over coveted territory.
- Up to 30 spectators attend the battles, leaving their own territories unattended to do so.
<p>Ornithologists already knew that <a href="http://hastingsreserve.org/current-research/acorn-woodpeckers.html" target="_blank">acorn woodpeckers</a>, <em>Melanerpes formicivorus</em>, were gonzo. They're major hoarders of acorns, females eat each other's eggs, and then there's the group sex. It turns out they're also committed, tenacious, and ferocious warriors when it comes to competition for high-quality territory. Small teams of acorn woodpeckers battle over abandoned "granaries," tree sections with thousands of holes dug into their bark by birds — the holes are ideal for storing acorns.</p><p>First author of a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(20)31098-8" target="_blank">Current Biology</a><em>,</em> <a href="http://www.sahasbarve.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Sahas Barve</a> of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-09-acorn-woodpeckers-wage-days-long-vacant.html" target="_blank">spoke to Phys.org</a>. He sets the scene:</p><p style="margin-left: 20px;">"When you're approaching a big tree with a power struggle from far away, you'll first hear a lot of acorn woodpeckers calling very distinctly, and see birds flying around like crazy. When you get closer, you can see that there are a dozen or more coalitions of three or four birds fighting and posturing on branches. One group has to beat all the others to win a spot in the territory, which is really, really rare in animals—even in fantasy novels it usually boils down to one army against the other."</p><p>The research also reveals that large numbers of acorn woodpeckers who are not themselves involved in the action watch the battle royal unfold as spectators.</p>
Acorn woodpeckers
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzgwMDAzMy9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY2NDc1ODExN30.A2m8gTkzBndTUjghwOh6Rc2NWwTXMjkMo7jH9eezq1k/img.jpg?width=980" id="9b2f8" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="7093a92289c1e00f38e76504ad3dc596" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="acorn woodpecker" data-width="1440" data-height="960" />Credit: Ondrej Prosicky/Shutterstock
<p>Much of what's known about these birds, including the new research, comes from a long-running project at the <a href="http://hastingsreserve.org" target="_blank">Hastings Natural History Reservation</a> in California's Monterey Country. Acorn woodpeckers first arrived at the sanctuary in 1968 and have been under observation since 1974. The birds are common in the oak woodlands of western North America.</p><p>Acorn woodpeckers have a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygynandry" target="_blank">polygynandrous</a> mating system, something that's rarely seen in nature. A group will consist of as many as seven co-breeding males and four joint-nesting females. Breeding members of the group couple promiscuously within the group, and never outside it.</p><p>It's an incestuous arrangement by human standards, with father and son competing for and breeding with the same females. And though the females use the same nests, it's pretty competitive — one female will remove and eat another mother's eggs to make room for her own. Over time, according to Hastings, this results in a balance in the number of chicks among the females.</p><p>In addition, an acorn woodpecker group will also include other, non-breeding community "helper" members — they're the woodpeckers who go into battle for acorn granaries. Though the woodpeckers primarily feed on insects, acorns provide them with non-perishable nutrition for those colder months when bug meals are few and far between.</p>Fight Club
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzgwMDAzOS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY2MTcxMDU5Nn0.ep-PNigMZayCRdAp47v-5aBWp9a3x9iwkVLdlOqZEkM/img.jpg?width=980" id="33cea" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="fe92b1641ba8518f164dd274e69cc44e" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="acorns embedded in tree holes" data-width="1440" data-height="960" />Credit: David A Litman/Shutterstock
<p>A granary for which an acorn woodpecker will fight is reminiscent of a human wine rack: An array of vertical storage compartments for their precious winter food. And they're dead serious about acquiring this storage: "These birds often wait for years, and when there's the right time and they have the right coalition size, they'll go and give it their all to win a really good territory," <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-09-acorn-woodpeckers-wage-days-long-vacant.html" target="_blank">says Barve.</a></p><p>The balls-to-the-wall action of acorn woodpecker battle have made it difficult for human researchers to keep track of what's going on, so Barve and his colleagues devised a solution: They outfitted woodpeckers with radio tags that allowed the researchers to tell when two birds were in the same location, and to track the origin of combatants, and also to make detailed observations of a melee.</p><p>While the researchers had thought that acorn woodpeckers living nearby would most fiercely make a play for a nearby granary, this turned out not to be the case. It's not yet known what prompts one group of woodpeckers to commit to battle, though the researchers suggest that a group's internal calculus somehow produces a decision whether to try and acquire a particular granary.</p><p>Yet commit they do. The researchers found that woodpecker teams will fight for as long as 10 hours straight, and will return day after day. This was something of a surprise to researchers, making them wonder how they even sustain themselves that long.</p>"Get ya acorns heayah, acorns, get ya acorns heayah!"
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzgwMDA0Ni9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzNzkyMDMwMX0.MH5tJaZk4PQrANKic92UKkVIG8kuW7gAgrFRQHk1YMk/img.jpg?width=980" id="9a454" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="9af4e854af92f7a5c48aba5a86359366" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="woodpeckers" data-width="1440" data-height="960" />Credit: Petr Simon/Shutterstock
<p>Previous research missed the spectators because the brouhaha was so overwhelming and attention-grabbing. As many as 30 woodpeckers have been observed in the peanut gallery.</p><p>The researchers have seen birds coming from as far as three kilometers (1.9 miles) away. These onlookers may spend up to an hour each day in attendance. Among the spectators are woodpeckers who already have adequate granaries of their own — whatever they get out of watching has to be worth the time spent leaving their own granaries unattended. The researchers suggest the watchers may be curious about changes a battle could make to the local status quo.<span></span></p><p>These highly social birds may also actually be rooting for one fighting group over another. "They potentially have friendships," <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-09-acorn-woodpeckers-wage-days-long-vacant.html" target="_blank">says Barve,</a> "and they probably have enemies. The next step is to try and understand how their social networks are shaped, and how they vary across the year."</p>
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You’re not going far from home – and neither are the animals you spy out your window
Maybe you've been wondering if you're seeing one persistent squirrel or a rotating cast of characters.
24 May, 2020
Photo by Toimetaja tõlkebüroo on Unsplash
Watching the wildlife outside your window can boost your mental well-being, and it's something lots of people have been doing a lot more of lately.
<p>
Maybe you've been wondering if you're seeing one persistent gray squirrel or a rotating cast of furry characters. Maybe you've been thinking about which birds are passing through for the season and which are townies who stick around all year.
</p><p>
<a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=uYWmAHMAAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">As a wildlife ecologist</a>, I've learned to pay attention to patterns that show me what the animals outside my window are up to, and I usually know which individuals are my regulars.
</p><p>
Whether you're spying on animals in a city, town or rural area, with a little background knowledge, you too can keep tabs on the private lives of your neighborhood critters.
</p>
<h2>Seasonal shifts change the players</h2><p>
For many species, winter is a time when individuals compete less with one another and gather in large groups.
</p><p>
For example, eastern cottontail rabbits congregate around areas with
<a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/wild-mammals-north-america" target="_blank">plenty of food and places to escape to</a>. Birds form large mixed-species flocks, which helps them better find food and avoid being hunted. They even form temporary allegiances as they forage together, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/670548" target="_blank">following specific individuals</a> who help determine where the flock goes.
</p><p>
<img src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static_files/files/1027/whtspa-abundance-map-weekly-2019-760-4fps.gif?1588599297">
</p><p>
Seasonal migration means the abundance of particular species in one location can change over the course of the year.
<i>Courtesy eBird.org (<a href="https://ebird.org/science/status-and-trends/whtspa/abundance-map-weekly" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://ebird.org/science/status-and-trends/whtspa...</a>)</i>
</p><p>
As the season changes to spring, migratory species start arriving. A steady parade of individuals moves through the neighborhood. As animals transition to their breeding season, plumage and appearances may change as they work to attract mates. For many species,
<a href="https://www.sibleyguides.com/about/the-sibley-guide-to-bird-life-behavior/" target="_blank">defense of a piece of land</a> becomes an overriding concern.
</p><p>
During the summer months, adult animal numbers stabilize, and the drive to establish a territory means you're likely to have the same individuals active outside your windows for the majority of summer.
</p><p>
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=476&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333489/original/file-20200507-49556-1kpi6se.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=599&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
</p><p>
This white-throated sparrow is molting into breeding plumage before heading on to summer grounds. (<a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/B_YBazIADuM/">Julian Avery</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/">CC BY-ND</a>)</p>
<h2>Splitting up the neighborhood</h2><p>
A territory is a chunk of habitat. Its size will vary depending on the amount of food and breeding resources it holds. A territory with few trees, for example, may need to be bigger to hold enough forage for the animal that owns the turf.
</p><p>
<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.08.023" target="_blank">Territory sizes for different species</a> can range from the size of a large kitchen table (common <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zool.2007.04.001" target="_blank">lizards</a> like green anoles and skinks) to an area greater than 120 football fields (<a href="https://doi.org/10.1676/0043-5643(2000)112%5B0021:HRCOMC%5D2.0.CO;2" target="_blank">a raptor such as the Cooper's hawk</a>). The cool thing is that <a href="https://jhupbooks.press.jhu.edu/title/wild-mammals-north-america" target="_blank">animal home ranges</a> are governed by their own needs and often do not follow the lines of human fences and alleyways.
</p><p>
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=459&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/332882/original/file-20200505-83740-etd1qe.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=577&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
</p><p>
A territory map for anoles shows how these lizards each have their own home turf that can overlap with neighbors. Habitat in this case included individual trees and a fallen log toward the bottom of the map which offered basking and display space. (<a class="source" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=WmrOSi4AAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">Jordan Bush</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-ND</a>)</p><p>
I like to think of animal territories as quilts that drape over your neighborhood. For some species, like anoles, the squares in that quilt will have many small and intricate pieces, and you could fit many quilt pieces within each individual human property boundary. Some of those pieces will even overlap other patches.
</p><p>
Small songbirds will have quilt patches that span several human properties, though they may use specific parts more than others. Larger species will have quilt patches that cover entire neighborhoods with one territory.
</p>
<h2>Frequently spotted</h2><p>
If you've become familiar with the animals in your neighborhood, chances are you'll see some of the same individuals again year after year. Eastern cottontails are likely to live
<a href="http://www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/Sylvilagus_floridanus/" target="_blank">up to three years in the wild</a>, and they <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1374932" target="_blank">stay in the same general territory</a> throughout their lives. Even the young have a tendency to stay close to their birth place.
</p><p>
Researchers have recaptured gray squirrels year after year in their original territories. On average, these critters survive about
<a href="https://www.esf.edu/aec/adks/mammals/gray_squirrel.htm" target="_blank">six years and can live longer than 20</a>.
</p><div data-react-class="InstagramEmbed" data-react-props="{"url":"https://www.instagram.com/p/B_tBzpJA5FI"}">
</div><p>
Birds also have long lives and
<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-048X.2011.05520.x" target="_blank">will often stay in the</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.5253/078.096.0211">same territory year after year</a>. However, when eggs don't hatch or young die in the nest, some birds may choose a new territory the following year. This means there can be high turnover in your local bird network if the local habitat is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-16-72.1" target="_blank">unpredictable or full of urban predators</a>.
</p><p>
Birds that don't migrate and
<a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4163451" target="_blank">stay in residence year-round</a>, like chickadees, often have a tendency to <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1939172" target="_blank">stay in the same area</a>, which means you'll be seeing the same individual birds outside your window across seasons.
</p><p>
Some species will have territories that don't overlap much at all. For others, the
<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307/1381990" target="_blank">overlap can be extensive</a>.
</p><p>
This means that generally during the breeding season, you could be watching many gray squirrels visiting outside your window.
</p><p>
There may also be a couple of male cottontails, but probably a single female because they tend to not overlap with other females.
</p><p>
Maybe you'll spy the same pair of cardinals along with a reliable pair of chickadees. If you're watching closely like I was the other day, you may get lucky and catch another male cardinal from the territory next door trying to flirt with your female, at least until her mate realizes what's about to happen. That is a clue to the invisible lines birds have drawn between their own domains.</p><p>
When it comes to smaller animals, like lizards and insects, all bets are off for how many unique individuals are present outside your window. But you can expect more of everything as the number of
<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.06.029" target="_blank">native plants</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1809259115" target="_blank">increases</a>.
</p>
<h2>Tips for watching</h2><p>
If you're interested in trying to keep track of particular wildlife friends through the window, try to watch for identifying marks.
</p><p>
<a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img alt="" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=568&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/333486/original/file-20200507-49573-1im5u53.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=713&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></a>
</p><p>
Natural markings like a torn ear can help you keep track of individuals. (<a class="source" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/B_p-gZ0g0UG/" target="_blank">Julian Avery</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/" target="_blank">CC BY-ND</a>)</p><p>
<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-018-01693-5">In my research, I attach</a> <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.12236" target="_blank">colored bands to bird legs</a> or mark the scales of turtles and snakes so we can figure out how many exist in an area. Many animals have enough individual variation that you can keep track of them using their natural unique marks and scars. Squirrels can have torn ears or injured tails, lizards can have unique scars or healed injuries, and birds can have subtle differences in color or pattern.
</p><p>
Also try paying attention to the maximum number you see at any one point. Where do they go after eating or basking? You may get lucky and spy a nest or resting place. See if you can spot other individuals coming from different directions and territories.</p><p>
At my house, we had a nest of rabbit kits born under our deck. I thought there was only one surviving newborn because we never saw more than one offspring. Two weeks later, there were three babies foraging simultaneously in the yard, and it became clear that they'd previously been taking turns coming out of hiding.
</p><p>
If you start watching closely, I think you'll find so much drama happening in your neighborhood that you may get hooked on the action.</p><p>
<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/julian-avery-959553" target="_blank">Julian Avery</a>, Assistant Research Professor of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/pennsylvania-state-university-1258" target="_blank">Pennsylvania State University</a></em>
</p><p>
This article is republished from
<a href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/youre-not-going-far-from-home-and-neither-are-the-animals-you-spy-out-your-window-136095" target="_blank">original article</a>.
</p>
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