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Sexual harassment claims from "non-stereotypical women" seen as less credible
A new study shows that beauty standards affect whether or not accusers are believed.
15 January, 2021
Credit: David Pereiras / Adobe Stock
- Sexual harassment is behavior characterized by the making of unwelcome and inappropriate sexual remarks or physical advances.
- Results of a 2018 survey showed that 81% of women (and 43% of men) had experienced some form of sexual harassment in their lifetime.
- According to a new study published by the American Psychological Association, women who do not fit female stereotypes for beauty are less likely to be seen as victims of sexual harassment, and if they claim they were harassed, they are less likely to be believed.
**Trigger Warning: this article mentions sexual violence (in the context of rape, sexual assault, and sexual coercion). Reader discretion is advised.**
<p><strong>What is the difference between sexual assault and sexual harassment? </strong></p><p><a data-linked-post="2645300825" href="https://bigthink.com/mind-brain/sexual-assault-psychology" target="_blank">Sexual assault</a> is classified as any type of sexual activity (including rape) that happens without your consent. Sexual harassment is defined as behavior that is characterized by the making of unwelcome and inappropriate sexual remarks or physical advances. </p><p><strong>How common is sexual harassment? </strong></p><p>A <a href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/02/21/587671849/a-new-survey-finds-eighty-percent-of-women-have-experienced-sexual-harassment?t=1610689553301" target="_blank">National Study on Sexual Harassment and Assault</a> from 2018 surveyed 2009 adults (18+). This included 996 individuals who identified themselves as female and 1013 who identified themselves as male. The results of this survey showed that 81% of women (and 43% of men) had experienced some form of sexual harassment in their lifetime.</p>
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTQ1NTg4NS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYxMzMwOTI3M30.g_jcERVu9uPRysiJYebwoGkSg62Tti7WiUHLshskYEU/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C438%2C0%2C438&height=700" id="9206e" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="3709bef713dd50c5346f43a13e9f1145" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="sexual harassment complaint form sexual harassment victim" data-width="1245" data-height="700" />
<p><br></p><div></div><ul class="ee-ul"></ul><ul class="ee-ul"></ul><div></div><ul class="ee-ul"></ul><ul class="ee-ul"></ul><div></div>The study conducted a series of 11 multi-method experiments, involving over 4,000 participants.
Credit: Andrey Popov / Adobe Stock
<p><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2021-01/apa-shc011221.php" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">According to a new study</a> published by the American Psychological Association, women who do not fit female stereotypes for beauty are less likely to be seen as victims of sexual harassment, and if they claim they were harassed, they are less likely to be believed.</p><p>"Sexual harassment is pervasive and causes significant harm, yet far too many women cannot access fairness, justice, and legal protection, leaving them susceptible to further victimization and harm within the legal system," study co-author Cheryl Kaiser, Ph.D., of the University of Washington <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2021-01/apa-shc011221.php" target="_blank">said in a statement</a>. </p><p>According to Kaiser, sexual harassment claims were deemed less credible (and the harassment was perceived as less psychologically harmful) when it targeted a victim who was less attractive and/or did not act according to the stereotype of a typical woman. </p><p>The study conducted a series of 11 multi-method experiments, involving over 4,000 participants. It was designed to investigate the effects a victim's fit to the concept of a typical woman had on participants' view of sexual harassment (and the consequences of that mental association). In five experiments, participants read scenarios in which women either did or did not experience sexual harassment. Participants assessed the extent to which these women fit the idealized image of women, either by drawing what they thought the woman might look like or selecting from a series of photos. Across all experiments, participants perceived the targets of sexual harassment as more stereotypical than those who did not experience harassment.</p><p>In the next four experiments, participants were shown ambiguous sexual harassment scenarios which were then paired with descriptions or photos of women who were either stereotypical or not. The participants then rated the likelihood that the incident constituted sexual harassment. According to authors of the study, participants were less likely to label these ambiguous scenarios as sexual harassment when the targets were non-stereotypical women (compared with stereotypical women), despite the fact that, in some cases, the incident was the exact same.</p><p><strong>The final two experiments in this study found that sexual harassment claims were often viewed as less credible when the victim adhered less to the typical female stereotype.<br><br></strong>Even when a stereotypical woman and non-stereotypical woman submitted the same claim, it was deemed as less credible if the woman was perceived as less feminine. Additionally, the participants found the harassment to be deemed as less psychologically harmful when experienced by a non-stereotypical female.</p><p>"Our findings demonstrate that non-stereotypical women who are sexually harassed may be vulnerable to unjust and discriminatory treatment when they seek legal recourse," co-author Bryn Bandt-Law, a doctoral student at the University of Washington, explained in an interview. "If women's nonconformity to feminine stereotypes biases perceptions of their credibility and harm caused by harassment, as our results suggest, it could prevent non-stereotypical women who are sexually harassed from receiving the civil rights protections afforded to them by law."</p><p><strong>**If you or someone you know has experienced sexual harassment or assault, contact the <a href="https://www.rainn.org/about-national-sexual-assault-telephone-hotline" target="_blank">National Sexual Assault Telephone Hotline</a> at 800-656-4673. You are not alone.**</strong></p>
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How New York's largest hospital system is predicting COVID-19 spikes
Northwell Health is using insights from website traffic to forecast COVID-19 hospitalizations two weeks in the future.
14 January, 2021
Credit: Getty Images
Sponsored by Northwell Health
- The machine-learning algorithm works by analyzing the online behavior of visitors to the Northwell Health website and comparing that data to future COVID-19 hospitalizations.
- The tool, which uses anonymized data, has so far predicted hospitalizations with an accuracy rate of 80 percent.
- Machine-learning tools are helping health-care professionals worldwide better constrain and treat COVID-19.
<p>One of the most devastating aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic has been unpredictability. The nation's health systems—especially those in hard-hit areas like New York City—have had to adapt to sudden surges of COVID-19 cases, all while dealing with limited resources, existing patients, and a novel virus that's still not fully understood.</p><p>But what if health systems were able to forecast COVID-19 hospitalizations two weeks before they occur? Northwell Health, the largest health care system in New York state, recently deployed a predictive tool that does just that.</p><p>Northwell Health's <a href="https://www.northwell.edu/northwell-website-patterns-predict-covid-19-cases" target="_blank">surveillance dashboard</a> is able to predict COVID-19 hospitalizations by using insights from machine learning. In March, Northwell Health's Customer Insights Group developed an algorithm that's been mining data from online traffic to the Northwell.edu website, which has received more than 20 million hits since March.<strong></strong></p><p>The algorithm collects data through 15 different indicators, each of which reflects the online behavior of the website's visitors. For example, the tool analyzes metrics such as the length of time users spend on certain pages, searches for emergency department wait times, and specific symptoms users search for. Combined, this information translates into something like the "public mood" of the website on any given day.</p>
<blockquote>Since Northwell Health began using the predictive tool in September, it's predicted COVID-19 hospitalizations with an accuracy of about 80 percent.</blockquote>
<p>To understand how this mood relates to future COVID-19 cases, Northwell Health began comparing its data with a timeline of COVID-19 hospitalizations across 23 hospitals and nearly 800 outpatient facilities and in the metro New York area. This enabled the Customer Insights Group to see patterns of online activity that precede future increases or decreases in hospitalizations.</p><p>Since Northwell Health began using the predictive tool in September, it's predicted COVID-19 hospitalizations with an accuracy of about 80 percent.</p><p>"This is really the first tool that I've been exposed to that gives me a sort of guestimate of what two weeks from now may look like," said Dr. <a href="https://www.northwell.edu/find-care/find-a-doctor/emergency-medicine/dr-eric-scott-cruzen-md-mba-11346068" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Eric Cruzen, </a>chief medical informatics officer of Northwell's emergency medicine services and chair of the emergency department at Lenox Health Greenwich Village in Manhattan.</p><p>"Even if the data can provide an idea of whether to expect an increase, decrease, or stasis, that's valuable. Because every day we're working to estimate what tomorrow's going to bring. Any tool that's going to shed light on that is a good tool in my book."</p>
The value of forecasting
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTA0Njk2OC9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyMzM2NDQzOH0.rid9regiDaKczCCKBsu7wrHkNQ64Vz_XcOEZIzAhzgM/img.jpg?width=980" id="2bb93" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="31345afbdf2bd408fd3e9f31520c445a" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-width="1546" data-height="1056" />Northwell emergency departments use the dashboard to monitor in real time.
Credit: Northwell Health
<p>One unique benefit of forecasting COVID-19 hospitalizations is that it allows health systems to better prepare, manage and allocate resources. For example, if the tool forecasted a surge in COVID-19 hospitalizations in two weeks, Northwell Health could begin:</p><ul><li>Making space for an influx of patients</li><li>Moving personal protective equipment to where it's most needed</li><li>Strategically allocating staff during the predicted surge</li><li>Increasing the number of tests offered to asymptomatic patients</li></ul><p>The health-care field is increasingly using machine learning. It's already helping doctors develop <a href="https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/early/2020/06/09/dc19-1870" target="_blank">personalized care plans for diabetes patients</a>, improving cancer screening techniques, and enabling mental health professionals to better predict which patients are at <a href="https://healthitanalytics.com/news/ehr-data-fuels-accurate-predictive-analytics-for-suicide-risk" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">elevated risk of suicide</a>, to name a few applications.</p><p>Health systems around the world have already begun exploring how <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7315944/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">machine learning can help battle the pandemic</a>, including better COVID-19 screening, diagnosis, contact tracing, and drug and vaccine development.</p><p>Cruzen said these kinds of tools represent a shift in how health systems can tackle a wide variety of problems.</p><p>"Health care has always used the past to predict the future, but not in this mathematical way," Cruzen said. "I think [Northwell Health's new predictive tool] really is a great first example of how we should be attacking a lot of things as we go forward."</p>Making machine-learning tools openly accessible
<p>Northwell Health has made its predictive tool <a href="https://github.com/northwell-health/covid-web-data-predictor" target="_blank">available for free</a> to any health system that wishes to utilize it.</p><p>"COVID is everybody's problem, and I think developing tools that can be used to help others is sort of why people go into health care," Dr. Cruzen said. "It was really consistent with our mission."</p><p>Open collaboration is something the world's governments and health systems should be striving for during the pandemic, said Michael Dowling, Northwell Health's president and CEO.</p><p>"Whenever you develop anything and somebody else gets it, they improve it and they continue to make it better," Dowling said. "As a country, we lack data. I believe very, very strongly that we should have been and should be now working with other countries, including China, including the European Union, including England and others to figure out how to develop a health surveillance system so you can anticipate way in advance when these things are going to occur."</p><p>In all, Northwell Health has treated more than 112,000 COVID patients. During the pandemic, Dowling said he's seen an outpouring of goodwill, collaboration, and sacrifice from the community and the tens of thousands of staff who work across Northwell.</p><p>"COVID has changed our perspective on everything—and not just those of us in health care, because it has disrupted everybody's life," Dowling said. "It has demonstrated the value of community, how we help one another."</p>
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Why do we have breakup sex? Could it be beneficial?
Credit: LIGHTFIELD STUDIOS on Adobe Stock
- A July 2020 study aimed to better understand post-breakup behavior, specifically why we have breakup sex.
- This research established there are three main reasons people engage in breakup sex: relationship maintenance, ambivalence, and hedonism.
- Experts weigh in on whether or not breakup sex can be beneficial.
<ul class="ee-ul"></ul>
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTQzMjgwOS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyMTU5NjIzNX0.aiA-Ox1smqYThBoCp4BW6pBHt2NoNaJ-zdt0oCGQoDE/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C298%2C0%2C298&height=700" id="79a08" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="b3a57d062bdedccde8c8ad1d22ba04ec" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="woman and man on either side of door" data-width="1245" data-height="700" />
Why do we really have breakup sex?
Credit: rodjulian on Adobe Stock
<p>A <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1474704920936916" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">July 2020 research study</a> sought to better understand post-breakup behavior by looking at the practice of breakup sex. This research consisted of two studies: one to identify how past breakup sex experiences made the people involved feel versus how they predicted they would feel in the future, and the other investigated why men and women engage in breakup sex at all.</p><p>Men and women want to have breakup sex for different reasons. </p><p>The first study included 212 participants. The results suggested that men are more likely than women to have felt better about themselves after breakup sex, whereas women were more likely to feel better about the relationship after having breakup sex.</p><p>The second study included 585 participants and the results of this study revealed that most breakup sex appears to be motivated by three main factors: relationship maintenance, hedonism, and ambivalence. </p><p>In other words, common reasons to have breakup sex include: because it feels good, because we are conflicted over how we feel about the person, and/or because we think there is maybe a way to salvage things. With this particular study, men tended to support more hedonistic and ambivalent reasons for having breakup sex more often than women. </p>Most research says breakup sex is unhealthy
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTQzMjgwMC9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY1MTkzMjEyMn0.RDzGSXynRVnPpOTs43vkNjYZQdRRMMHSDkqv6jfTTcM/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C446%2C0%2C446&height=700" id="b16f5" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="2ae4de88a838d886a1cf1ebe7df2fdb6" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="man and woman laying in bed" data-width="1245" data-height="700" />Is breakup sex healthy? Research claims it's not...
Credit: fizkes on Adobe Stock
<p>While the media may portray breakup sex as beneficial, does it actually do anything to help us cope with, mend, or move on from the ending of a significant relationship? The majority of research suggests that it's unhealthy, however, every situation is different and there are almost always exceptions to the rules. </p><p><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/women-autism-spectrum-disorder/202006/is-break-sex-ever-good-idea" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Psychology Today</a> reminds us that when a relationship ends, those feelings that you had for the person don't just magically disappear. It can be a complicated and messy process—one that doesn't always have a clear path forward. The article goes on to explain some of the reasons breakup sex is unhealthy. </p><p><strong>It can give you false hope. </strong><br>Perhaps spending one more night together will convince you that the relationship isn't over or that you can continue just having sex without continuing the relationship. </p><p><strong>It stops you from moving forward. </strong><br>While there's no set time in which you should grieve the ending of a relationship, still seeing that person in any kind of sexual or romantic capacity is not going to help you heal and move forward to find better partners. </p><p><strong>The rush of hormones can make you feel differently than you actually do feel (temporarily). <br></strong>Oxytocin and other hormones released during sex are known for providing comforting, loving emotions. This can be quite conflicting when you don't actually feel that way with the person, but your body (due to sexual activity) is telling you that you do. </p>However, some experts claim there are some benefits to breakup sex.
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTQzMjgwMi9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYxMjI2NTI4NX0.UgmT7KWRLTRN2CPytCa7Ky5wdmSqaCKTQBqkm9YbeZE/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C189%2C0%2C189&height=700" id="28c04" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="4221709927d001eedb381f806ae6d51e" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="man and woman breaking up concept of breakup sex psychology" data-width="1245" data-height="700" />Can breakup sex ever be beneficial? Some experts think it can.
Image by Naufal on Adobe Stock
<p>Psychosexual and relationship psychotherapist Kate Moyle spoke with <a href="https://www.elitedaily.com/p/the-psychology-behind-breakup-sex-explains-why-it-feels-super-hot-17031372#:~:text=%E2%80%9CBreakup%20sex%20helps%20a%20couple,may%20have%20once%20worked%20well." target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Elite Daily</a> about some of the reasons why breakup sex could potentially feel helpful to those involved.</p><p>Breakup sex could allow you to be bolder in bed, leading you to more sexual satisfaction. According to Moyle, it can allow people to lose their inhibitions because they are less afraid of judgment or reaction because the relationship is ending. </p><p><strong>Breakup sex can also be therapeutic. </strong></p><p>In his interview with Elite Daily, licensed Psychotherapist Dr. John D. Moore explains that breakup sex can be one facet of the drawn-out process of ending a relationship. While most people assume relationship endings are an immediate event, Moore suggests it's more of an ongoing process. </p><p>After a breakup, your feelings are in a heightened state, which can allow you to emotionally connect with a partner in a more intense way, which can allow you both to work through some of the emotions surrounding the ending of your relationship. In the interview, Moore goes on to explain that breakup sex almost has the ability to validate certain parts of your relationship (perhaps your physical connection or chemistry) that once worked really well. It can be a celebration of the parts of your relationship you both loved and a way to let go of the relationship due to the things that won't make it work.</p><p><strong>Is breakup sex worth it? </strong></p><p>Some research is against it, some experts are for it, so is breakup sex worth it? It seems almost entirely situational. If you're having breakup sex because you are still hoping to save your relationship, perhaps it's best to steer clear of it to avoid more hurt feelings. However, if you're interested in breakup sex to celebrate and validate each other and the good parts of your relationship, there is proof that it can do that.</p>
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Why do men need to recharge after sex? Scientists make surprising discovery.
Previous research suggesting it's all about prolactin may be missing the mark.
08 January, 2021
Credit: DANNY G/Unsplash
- Men and other male creatures need time to recover between ejaculations, and scientists have assumed it has to do with an increase in the hormone prolactin after coitus.
- A new study finds that manipulating prolactin levels in mice makes no difference in their sexual behavior.
- The authors suspect more complex interactions may be at the heart of the wait for round two.
<p>For some time, scientists have suspected the reason men require recovery time between ejaculations has to do with the hormone <a href="https://www.hormone.org/your-health-and-hormones/glands-and-hormones-a-to-z/hormones/prolactin" target="_blank">prolactin</a>. During the "post-ejaculation refractory period" (PERP) following orgasm, levels of prolactin spike, and since high prolactin levels have been linked to a lack of sexual desire, it's been thought that this surge has to subside before men are ready for another go. It takes a little while for this to happen, though there's no consensus on exactly how long a wait is necessary.</p><p>A new study from researchers at the <a href="http://first.fchampalimaud.org/en/the-foundation/champalimaud-centre-unknown/" target="_blank">Champalimaud Research Center for the Unknown</a> in Portugal involving mice suggests that prolactin may not be the only, or even the main, factor in post-coital downtime. Its first author Susan Lima says prolactin's presence during the PERP may have been misinterpreted: "This means it was just correlation. Causation was never tested," she tells <a href="https://www.inverse.com/mind-body/why-do-men-have-to-wait-for-round-two" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Inverse</a>.</p><p>The study's finding was a bit of surprise, in fact, says Lima in a <a href="https://fchampalimaud.org/news/why-do-males-have-wait-round-2-reason-may-be-different-what-we-think" target="_blank">press release</a>: "When we started working on this project, we actually set off to explore the theory. Our goal was to investigate in more detail the biological mechanisms by which prolactin might generate the refractory period."</p><p>The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-020-01570-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Communications Biology</a>.</p>
PERP
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTI2OTI5MS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY2OTkyODk5OH0.1M9fAOERqj7uhXoA0owV4diEjUUuMIZ_gxvAsfRdB3A/img.jpg?width=980" id="cd357" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="d045e3e22ba8661166825b91be5b95b4" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" data-width="1440" data-height="960" />Credit: Julian Hochgesang /Unsplash
<p>From an evolutionary standpoint, as the study puts it, "The PERP is thought to allow replacement of sperm and seminal fluid, functioning as a negative feedback system where, by inhibiting too-frequent ejaculations, an adequate sperm count needed for fertilization is maintained." The length of time involved appears to be influenced by a range of factors, including age and the excitement associated with having a new sexual partner.</p><p>Prolactin itself serves a variety of functions in the human body for both sexes. Its most well-known role is to promote lactation—it's released by the female body during nursing. Estrogen triggers its production by the pituitary gland, while dopamine restrains it.</p><p>Though prolactin's other roles remain under investigation, it's also believed to be involved in behavior regulation, and in maintaining the immune, metabolic, and reproductive systems.</p>No smoking gun
<p>The authors write that "the sequence of sexual behavior in the mouse is very similar to the one observed in humans, making it an ideal system to test this hypothesis."</p><p>Therefore, for the study, Lima and her colleagues studied prolactin's role during and after sexual activity for two types of male mice—one type required several days to recover from ejaculation while the other had a relatively short PERP.</p><p>The researchers took blood from the males before they were introduced to female partners from whom they'd been kept separated. Blood was again taken after a preliminary mounting, again after a number of mounts that depended on the male's PERP—five mounts for the slow-recoverers and three for the males with the shorter turnaround time. Finally, blood was taken after ejaculation, which was fairly easy to discern since it was accompanied by what the study calls "stereotypical shivering" in the males, who also fell over afterward.</p><p>The researchers did find that the males' recovery was accompanied by higher levels of prolactin. However, during subsequent experiments in which the scientists boosted prolactin levels prior to sex—which, if the prevailing theory was correct, would have reduced their interest in copulation—no change in their sexual behavior was observed. Says Lima, "Despite the elevation in prolactin levels, both strains of mice engaged in sexual behavior normally."</p><p>Repressing prolactin levels after ejaculation also failed to reduce the males' PER interval. "If prolactin was indeed necessary for the refectory period," says Lima, "males without prolactin should have regained sexual activity after ejaculation faster than controls. But they did not."</p><p>Lima does caution that there are some differences between mice and men when it comes to prolactin dynamics, so more study is warranted.</p>So, what is going on?
<p>Lima suggests that there's likely some complex interaction between the two systems involved in ejaculation: the central brain system that manages desire and the peripheral system that handles the physical aspects of ejaculation.</p><p>At the very least, the research suggests that we don't yet know why men experience their mandatory time-out. "Our results indicate that prolactin is very unlikely to be the cause," Lima summarizes. "Now we can move on and try to find out what's really happening." </p>
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7 research-based resolutions that will help strengthen your relationship in the year ahead
Scrap getting fitter or eating better and focus more on the people in your life.
06 January, 2021
VALERY HACHE/AFP via Getty Images
Sex & Relationships
The new year is going to be better. It has to be better.
<p>Maybe you're one of the <a href="https://www.finder.com/new-years-resolution-statistics" target="_blank">74% of Americans</a> in one survey who said they planned on hitting the reset button on Jan. 1 and resolving to improve. Those <a href="http://maristpoll.marist.edu/marist-poll-national-results-analysis-4/" target="_blank">New Year's resolutions most commonly focus on</a> eating healthier, exercising, losing weight and being a better person. </p><p>Admirable goals, to be sure. But focusing on body and mind neglects something equally important: your romantic relationship. Couples with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00393.x" target="_blank">better marriages report higher well-being</a>, and a recent study found that having a better romantic relationship not only promoted well-being and better health now but that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2020.1838238" target="_blank">those benefits extend into the future</a>. </p><p>The lesson is clear: Your relationship is important. Resolve to get it right. </p><p>That doesn't mean you have to be perfect. But here are seven resolutions based on recent psychological research that you can make this New Year to help keep your relationship going strong. </p>
<h2>1. Set yourself up for success</h2><p>Adjust your mindset so you see your relationship as a key <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00373.x" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">source of positive experiences</a>. <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=v2ai_5wAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Psychologists like me</a> call this boosting your social approach motivation. Instead of merely trying to avoid relationship problems, those with an approach motivation seek out the positives and <a href="http://peplab.web.unc.edu/files/2020/11/Don-Fredrickson-Algoe-JPSP-In-press-Approach-Paper-In-Press-.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">use them to help the relationship</a>.</p><p>Here's how: Imagine a conversation with your partner. Having more of an approach motivation allows you to focus on positive feelings as you talk and to see your partner as more responsive to you. Your partner gets a burst of positivity, too, and in return sees you as more responsive. One partner's good vibes spill over to the other partner, ultimately benefiting both. After a year when your relationship may have felt unprecedented external strains, laying the foundation to take advantage of any positives is good place to start.</p><h2>2. Be optimistic</h2><p>While things in the past may not have always gone how you wanted, it's important to be optimistic about the future. But the right kind of optimism matters. A <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12342" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">2020 research study</a> from <a href="https://cns.utexas.edu/directory/item/84-human-dev-family-sci/3008-farnish-krystan?Itemid=349" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Krystan Farnish</a> and <a href="https://cns.utexas.edu/directory/item/14-human-ecology/259-neff-lisa-a?Itemid=349" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Lisa Neff</a> found that generally looking on the bright side of life allowed participants to deal with relationship conflict more effectively – as they put it, better able to "shake it off" – than did those who were optimistic specifically about their relationship.</p><p>It seems that if people focus all their rosy expectations just on their relationship, it encourages them to anticipate few negative experiences with their partner. Since that's unrealistic even in the best relationships, it sets them up for disappointment.</p>
<h2>3. Increase your psychological flexibility</h2><p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2005.06.006" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Try to go with the flow</a>. In other words, work on accepting your feelings without being defensive. It's OK to adjust your behaviors – you don't always have to do things the way you always have or go the places you've always gone. Stop being stubborn and experiment with being flexible.</p><p>A recent study by <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Karen_Twiselton" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Karen Twiselton</a> and colleagues found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12344" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">when you're more flexible psychologically</a>, relationship quality is higher, in part because you experience more positive and fewer negative emotions. For example, navigating the yearly challenge of holidays and family traditions is a relationship minefield. However, if both partners back away from a "must do" mentality in favor of a more adaptable approach, relationship harmony will be greater.</p><h2>4. It's OK to put 'me' before 'we'</h2><p>It's easy for some people to play the self-sacrificing martyr in their romantic relationship. If this sounds like you, try to focus more on yourself. It doesn't make you a bad person or a bad partner. When you're psychologically healthy, your partner and your relationship also benefit.</p><p>Recent research identified <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000231" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">four main traits that are part of good mental health</a>: openness to feelings, warmth, positive emotions and straightforwardness. These traits help with being more clear about who you are, feeling better about who you are, expressing greater optimism and less aggression, exploiting others less and exhibiting less antisocial behavior. You can see how what's good for you in this case would be good for your partner too.</p>
<h2>5. Do something for your partner</h2><p>But it's not all about you. Putting your partner first some of the time and catering to your partner's desires is part of being a couple. A 2020 study by <a href="https://carleton.ca/psychology/people/johanna-peetz/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Johanna Peetz</a> and colleagues found that <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12357" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">prioritizing your partner</a> makes you feel closer to them, increases positive feelings, reduces negative ones and boosts perceived relationship quality.</p><p>In the new year, look for ways to give your partner some wins. Let them get their way from time to time and support them in what they want to do, without exclusively prioritizing your own wants and needs.</p><h2>6. Don't be so hard on yourself</h2><p>So many New Year's resolutions focus on body image. Aspirations to eat better and work out often stem from the same goal: a hotter body. Yet, research from <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xue_Lei8" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Xue Lei</a> shows that you may not really know what your partner wants you to look like.</p><p><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12451" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Women tend to overestimate how thin</a> male partners want them to be. Similarly, men believe that female partners want them to be more muscular than women say they do. It may seem harmless, but in both cases individuals are more critical and demanding toward themselves, in part based on misreading what a partner truly desires.</p><h2>7. Stay in touch</h2><p>I saved the easiest item on the list for last: Touch your partner more. When <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cheryl_Carmichael" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cheryl Carmichael</a> and colleagues followed 115 participants over a 10-day period, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550620929164" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">they found that initiating and receiving touch</a> – things like holding hands, cuddling, kissing – were associated with both a boost in closeness and relationship quality. Importantly, being touched by your partner has the added benefit of making you feel more understood and validated. Who couldn't use more of that in the coming year?<img src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/152349/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation"></p><p><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/gary-w-lewandowski-jr-110019" target="_blank">Gary W. Lewandowski Jr.</a>, Professor of Psychology, <em><a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/monmouth-university-1242" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Monmouth University</a></em></p><p>This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/7-research-based-resolutions-that-will-help-strengthen-your-relationship-in-the-year-ahead-152349" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">original article</a>.</p>
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Study shatters the myth that BDSM is linked to early-life trauma
No, being interested in BDSM does not mean you had a traumatic childhood.
05 January, 2021
Study finds no significant link between traumatic early life experiences and BDSM practices as an adult.
Credit: LIGHTFIELD STUDIOS / Adobe Stock
Sex & Relationships
- BDSM is a kind of sexual expression and/or practice that refers to three main subcategories: Bondage/Discipline, Dominance/submission, and Sadism/Masochism.
- It has been widely speculated that many BDSM practitioners or people who enjoy the BDSM lifestyle are drawn to it because of sexual trauma they experienced in the past.
- This 2020 study claims that BDSM practitioners deserve perception as normal sexual practice free from stigmatization rather than deviant behavior.
<p>BDSM is a kind of sexual expression or practice that refers to three main subcategories: </p><ul class="ee-ul"><li>Bondage and Discipline (BD)</li><li>Dominance and submission (DS)</li><li>Sadism and Masochism (SM) </li></ul><p>It has been widely speculated that many BDSM practitioners or people who enjoy the BDSM lifestyle are more drawn to the kinky lifestyle because of sexual trauma they have experienced in the past. </p><p>A <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13178-020-00438-w" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">2020 study</a> smashed this myth by surveying 771 BDSM practitioners and 518 non-practitioners from the general population. These participants all completed a survey assessing BDSM interests as well as the Brief Trauma Questionnaire that is used to gauge traumatic events, and the Relationships Questionnaire that is used to assess a person's attachment style. </p><p><strong>What is the Brief Trauma Questionnaire? </strong></p><p>The BTQ, as it's referred to by the <a href="https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/documents/BTQ.pdf" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">National Center for PTSD</a>, is a self-report questionnaire derived from the <a href="https://health.oregonstate.edu/sites/health.oregonstate.edu/files/char/military-life-course/publications/schnurr_spiro_vielhauer_findler_hamblen_2002_trauma_in_the_lives_of_older_men-_findings_from_the_normaitve_aging_study.pdf" target="_blank">Brief Trauma Interview</a>. This questionnaire is used to assess whether an individual has had an event that meets the criteria for traumatic events.</p><p><strong>What is the Relationships Questionnaire? </strong></p><p>The RQ, as it's referred to by <a href="http://fetzer.org/sites/default/files/images/stories/pdf/selfmeasures/Attachment-RelationshipsQuestionnaire.pdf" target="_blank">the Fetzer Institute</a>, is a four-item survey designed to measure adult attachment styles. There are four main attachment styles: secure, dismissive-avoidant, anxious-preoccupied, and fearful-avoidant. <a href="https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/relationships/dating/your-attachment-style?utm_source=sciam&utm_campaign=sciam" target="_blank">This article</a> does a wonderful job summarizing the various attachment styles by comparing them to relationships on the television show "How I Met Your Mother."</p>
No, being interested in BDSM doesn’t mean you had a traumatic childhood
<span style="display:block;position:relative;padding-top:56.25%;" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="20118e9474ed94bd8e4d50bc166b1bee"><iframe type="lazy-iframe" data-runner-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ZfSyq8gRsyM?rel=0" width="100%" height="auto" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;"></iframe></span><p>While many may assume being interested in BDSM may mean you've experienced unhealthy or violent relationships/situations in your formative years, this study explains why that myth should be put to rest.</p><p>BDSM practitioners across the study scored higher levels of physical abuse in adulthood. However, no significant differences emerged for other traumatic experiences (including childhood physical abuse or unwanted sexual trauma).<br></p><p>There have been many accounts (<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tYG0pajxLuY" target="_blank">such as this</a>) from BDSM practitioners that have claimed there is a certain "healing process" involved in finding a trustworthy BDSM relationship after escaping from a toxic relationship. This could account for why people who have experienced physically abusive relationships as adults then turn to the BDSM community and BDSM-related sexual interests. </p><p>When it came to the Relationship Questionnaire, people who engaged in the BDSM lifestyle more often scored in the "secure" attachment style than people who were not BDSM practitioners. While many BDSM practitioners had secure attachment styles, there was also a significant spike in anxious-preoccupied attachment styles when it came to people who practiced BDSM. In particular, the "secure" attachment style was associated with BDSM practitioners who identified as "Dominant" and the "anxious-preoccupied" attachment style was associated with people who identified as "submissive."</p><p><strong>There are no findings to support the hypothesis of BDSM being a coping mechanism for early life dynamics or trauma.</strong> </p><p>This authors of the study claim that BDSM practitioners deserve perception as normal sexual practice free from stigmatization rather than deviant behavior—and the final results of the study support this idea. </p>Are people involved in BDSM practices more aware of their attachment styles?
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTIwMDc2OS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY2OTYwMjA1OX0.2cQbq1Nka_9dWd6GvzyoWjc68JU3Oor-1d6PKnUWBmY/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C292%2C0%2C292&height=700" id="c0877" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="6eb72a2ee78fb73264254d33e4411364" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="man and woman holding paper heart" data-width="1245" data-height="700" />Could people who engage in BDSM be more mindful in their relationships?
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<p>While many people insist engaging in BDSM practices means you've had significant traumatic experienced that led you to do so, there are some experts that argue BDSM practitioners are actually more in tune with their own psychopathology than people who do not engage in BDSM activities.</p><p>BDSM involves a diverse range of practices which can involve role-playing games in which one person assumes a dominant role and the other assumes a submissive role. These activities are often intense and can involve activities such as physical restraint, power plays, humiliation, and sometimes (but not always) pain. </p><p><a href="https://www.nhs.uk/news/mental-health/fans-of-bondage-and-sm-report-better-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">According to a study</a> published in the Journal of Sexual Medicine, people involved in BDSM may actually be more mentally healthy. The study suggests people who engage in BDSM activities often show more extroverted qualities and tend to be more open to experiences and more conscientious. They also tend to be less neurotic and less sensitive to rejection. The study also showed BDSM practitioners had a more secure attachment style, which is supported in the more recent study listed above. </p><p>Additionally, <a href="https://www.bustle.com/articles/186777-bdsm-may-be-the-most-mindful-type-of-sex-study-finds" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">it's been hypothesized</a> that people involved in BDSM are more mindful during sex than those who do not engage in BDSM practices. </p>
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Pornography does not cause sexual violence, according to new research
A large-scale meta-analysis aims to disprove the notion that pornography consumption causes sexual aggression and violence.
29 December, 2020
Credit: Paolese / Adobe Stock
Sex & Relationships
- The potential link between pornography consumption and sexual aggression and/or violence has been studied for decades, with the earliest research dating back to the 1970s.
- A 2020 meta-analysis study published in the Journal of Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, aims to entirely disprove the notion that there is a link between pornography and sexual aggression or sexually aggressive crimes.
- The CDC suggests that while "exposure to sexually graphic media" may be a factor in sexual aggression, it's not the cause nor the only factor that should be considered.
<p>The question "does pornography lead to sexual assault?" has been asked by many researchers and outlets over the years—from previous studies done on the topic, to <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/does-pornography-lead-to-sexual-assault_b_57c0876ae4b0b01630de8c93?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAJgaBT4kRy0DOJcH7d9jE2aPtMj2HjL0B78V--8NrjQ1vV5cr1LTsLiff2n4hhPtSMa4vk8dYx-wFFBMOouAQEgszwS-PltSi6qf6rNg7ojCGuF3SuHTVb8SU6WVFHWn3lvQCuQViK0iq8ZPeCcAGa6Radvqf3oky6spR7WLNqXy" target="_blank">Huffington Post think pieces</a>. Whether pornography contributes to sexual aggression has been a subject of research for decades, with scholars not being able to come to a consensus over whether or not the two are in any way linked. </p><ul class="ee-ul"></ul>
Does pornography cause sexual violence?
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTA4OTYyNi9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzNTUwOTYyOX0.FvmMYQoZpAkZqMMm3S5v_7zBg6d3fvlELf3lZFWoqOo/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C783%2C0%2C783&height=700" id="0fd8c" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="042738cda4ba95a556f8ec9c00659daf" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="porn dialogue windows open on computer" data-width="1245" data-height="700" />Is there any truth to the notion that pornography causes sexual violence?
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<p>The anti-pornography group, <a href="https://fightthenewdrug.org/how-consuming-porn-can-lead-to-violence/" target="_blank">Fight the New Drug</a>, is dedicated to confirming this theory, with mass-spread articles that heavily suggest consuming porn can (and will) lead to sexual violence.</p><p>We have seen a similar question being posed across all spectrums of the entertainment world:</p><ul><li>"Do violent video games lead to violence in kids?" </li><li>"Do graphic violence scenes in movies promote and encourage violence?"</li></ul><p><strong>How does what we consume, whether it be pornography, video games, or movies, impact our actions in the real world? </strong></p><p>Many studies in the past have attempted to draw a line (or erase the link entirely) between violence and pornography with no success on either side. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12131276_Exploring_the_Connection_Between_Pornography_and_Sexual_Violence" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">This 2000 study</a> by Raquel Kennedy Bergen and Kathleen A. Bogle collected data from 100 survivors of sexual abuse. Twenty-eight percent of respondents reported that their abuser used pornography and 12 percent of female respondents explained that pornography was imitated during their abusive incident. </p><p>More recently, <a href="https://www.galwaydaily.com/news/nuig-study-suggests-porn-use-exacerbates-sexual-aggression/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a separate 2019 study</a> of almost 600 male Croatian secondary school students (between the ages of 15-17) explored the link between sexually aggressive students and pornography. While teenagers who showed signs of sexually aggressive behavior were more likely to use pornography, the researchers were unable to find any apparent link showing pornography had caused the behavior. In fact, it was found that people who were sexually aggressive were those who were already predisposed to aggressive acts. </p><p>The consensus with many of these studies is that while porn can be particularly enticing to individuals who are prone to becoming or have in the past become sexually aggressive, there is no concrete evidence that porn has caused or worsened their sexual aggression.</p><p><strong>A new study hopes to disprove this notion once and for all.</strong></p><p>The most recent research on this topic is <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1524838020942754?journalCode=tvaa" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">a 2020 meta-analysis study</a> published in the Journal of Trauma, Violence, and Abuse. The current meta-analysis examined experimental, correlational, and population studies of the pornography/sexual aggression link dating from the 1970s until 2020. Several notable things were discovered in this meta-analysis that ultimately weakens the connection between pornography consumption and sexual aggression.</p><p>This meta-analysis examined decades of work, some of which suggested there is a link between pornography and sexual violence in real life and some of which suggested there is not. In the cases where the studies were conducted over a longer period of time, the link was weakened. </p><p><strong>Violent pornography was correlated with sexual aggression, but the evidence was unable to distinguish between selection effect compared to socialization effect.</strong> </p><p>"Selection effect" is defined as the bias that's introduced when a methodology or analysis is biased towards a specific subset of a target population. </p><p>"Socialization effect" is defined as the process of learning throughout a larger process of learning. For example, as we begin to study more about the link between sexual violence and porn, we learn more about both of those things which can then impact how we view the results of these studies. </p><p><strong>Studies that employed higher levels of best practices tended to provide less evidence of a potential link.</strong> </p><p>"Best practices" can be defined as a systematic process used to identify, describe, combine, and disseminate effective and efficient clinical strategies. Some of the "best practices for conducting research" include things like observing regulations during your research, reviewing protocol with all team members regularly, ensuring that each team member has the most current information, creating and using proper tools to assist in research, etc. </p><p>The studies that employed higher levels of best practices for research tended to also be the studies that provided less evidence of any potential link between pornography and sexual aggression. </p>Sexual violence is not caused by one specific factor, suggests the CDC
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yNTA4OTcxOS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTY0MjA0ODY5Mn0.QmWO8Bz70cq5VoqmWzfLmiRhzlpWnmK49a69FwxUREA/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C220%2C0%2C220&height=700" id="cf69f" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="4a798fa2653bf4d65f2e3e76401ae2ae" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="agenda calendar with "risk factors" written on the slip" data-width="1245" data-height="700" />Credit: Iryna on Adobe Stock
<p>Does pornography <em>cause </em>sexual violence? The evidence suggests not. The CDC has put together <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/sexualviolence/riskprotectivefactors.html" target="_blank">a list of "risk factors"</a> that can be linked to a greater likelihood of sexual violence perpetration.</p><p>While "exposure to sexually explicit media" is on this list, there are also many other factors that can contribute, such as: </p><ul><li>Alcohol and/or drug use</li><li>Lack of empathy </li><li>Delinquency </li><li>General aggressiveness and acceptance of violence </li><li>Hyper-masculinity </li><li>Suicidal behavior</li><li>Prior sexual victimization or perpetration </li><li>Hostility towards women</li><li>Early sexual initiation</li><li>Preference for impersonal sex and/or sexual risk-taking </li></ul><p>Additionally, there are several "community" (or environmental) factors that can also contribute, such as: </p><ul><li>Poverty </li><li>Lack of employment opportunities </li><li>Lack of institutional support </li><li>General tolerance of sexual violence within the community </li><li>Societal norms that support sexual violence </li><li>Weak laws and policies relating to sexual violence </li><li>High levels of crime </li></ul><p><em>"</em>During the past few years many states have declared that pornography is a public health crisis," <a href="https://www.stetson.edu/today/2020/07/stetson-researcher-says-porn-does-not-cause-violent-sex-crimes/" target="_blank">said Chris Ferguson</a>, a professor of psychology at Stetson University, to The University of Texas at San Antonio. </p><p>"Dr. Hartley and I were curious to see if evidence could support such claims—at least in regard to sexual aggression—or whether politicians were mistaking moral stances for science. Our evidence suggests that policymakers should examine other causes of sexual aggression and that beliefs about pornography may be driven more by methodological mistakes than sound science."<br></p>
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