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Adult-made neurons mature longer, have unique functions
Unraveling the mysteries of adult neurogenesis may have clinical applications.
26 June, 2020
- Neuroscientists don't know the degree to which adult human brains generate new neurons.
- A new study found that adult-born neurons in lab rats continued to grow and mature long after infant-born ones stopped.
- Understanding the process of neuron birth and death can help scientists understand the causes of neurological disorders.
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<p><a href="https://bigthink.com/mind-brain/brain?rebelltitem=3#rebelltitem3" target="_self">Learning about the brain</a> is a challenge. Neuroscientists must measure the operations of a byzantine tool with the very tool they're attempting to measure. That's a journey that's not so much winding as it is <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6bius_strip" target="_blank">Möbius</a>, so it's little wonder that history's greatest scientists and philosophers have yet to crack, say, <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/jan/21/-sp-why-cant-worlds-greatest-minds-solve-mystery-consciousness" target="_blank">the hard problem of consciousness</a>.</p><p>Other problems are limited more by our inability to poke around in real-time. Take the question of adult neurogenesis. <a href="https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-basics/brain-physiology/what-neurogenesis" target="_blank">Neurogenesis</a> is the brain's ability to generate new neurons. This process is intensely productive during embryonic development, and it continues after birth at a rate any parent with a toddler can appreciate daily.</p><p>For much of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, scientists believed neurogenesis didn't take place in the structured, sedate brains of human adults. They thought that after development we possessed all the neurons we'd ever have, and this lead to a perception that <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6128435/" target="_blank">aged minds had less plasticity</a>. </p><p>Then studies began to accumulate evidence that <a href="https://bigthink.com/ideafeed/scientists-prove-new-neurons-grow-in-adult-brains" target="_self">the adult brain</a> may not be as placid as thought. One such study, published in 2018 in <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/fulltext/S1934-5909(18)30121-8?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS1934590918301218%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank">Cell Stem Cell</a>, autopsied the hippocampi of 28 adults and found human brains still churn out neural stem cells by the thousands well into our golden years.</p><p>"We found that older people have similar ability to make thousands of hippocampal new neurons from progenitor cells as younger people do," <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/04/180405223413.htm" target="_blank">Maura Boldrini, the study's lead author, said in a release</a>. "We also found equivalent volumes of the hippocampus (a brain structure used for emotion and cognition) across ages."</p><p>Other studies have clouded the consensus. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29513649/" target="_blank">A study published in Nature</a>, one with a remarkably similar methodology to Boldrini's, found little evidence for young neurons in the dentate gyrus, a part of the hippocampus. Its authors concluded that neurogenesis likely ceased, or was extremely rare, in adults. </p><p>But a <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2020/06/22/JNEUROSCI.1665-19.2020" target="_blank">new study published in the Journal of Neuroscience</a> may have discovered how adult brains can continue to mature and retain plasticity without producing bubbly, baby neurons at the same clip as their younger counterparts.</p>
Getting better with age
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzQxODQ1NC9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyNjQxMjkwN30.eGwCMbptF8egRSgm4wyIBlAvjv6x8tqB5pauGurioHc/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C4%2C0%2C5&height=700" id="5b72b" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="50b37ca4d09cd4f1db9136b07810874d" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" />Reconstructions of adult-born neurons from rats undergoing maturation. Left to right: 2-weeks old, 4-weeks, 6-weeks, and 24-weeks.
(Photo: Cole, Espinueva et al/Journal of Neuroscience)Cole, Espinueva et al/Journal of Neuroscience)
<p>One challenge to understanding adult neurogenesis is that most studies examine new neurons within their typical six-week development window. <a href="https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/Patient-Caregiver-Education/Life-and-Death-Neuron" target="_blank">During that time</a> a neuron is born, travels to the region of the brain where it will work, and differentiates depending on that location. After that, the neuron is considered mature.</p><p><a href="https://www.centreforbrainhealth.ca/news/2020/06/22/adult-born-neurons-develop-longer-previously-thought-and-are-distinct-neonatally" target="_blank">According to Jason Snyder</a>, a researcher at the Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health and one of the study's authors, the researchers wanted to look beyond this window. They wanted to know if adult-born neurons could mature, grow later in life, and become unique to those produced by newborns' brains.</p><p>To test their hypothesis, the researchers injected a viral vector into lab rats' dentate gyri. The retrovirus was tagged with fluorescent reporters. After it inserted a copy of its genome into the dividing cells' DNA, subsequent generations would glow and allow the researchers to follow them.</p><p>They watched the rats' adult-born neurons for the typical six weeks, but then kept observing into the seventh. Amazingly, the seven-week-old neurons continued to exhibit growth markers, such as larger nuclei and thicker dendrites. The researchers continued their watch for 24 weeks and found the aged neurons were bigger and sported more connections than infant-born ones.</p><p><a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-06/sfn-ang061620.php" target="_blank">Based on the results</a>, they think that adult-born neurons may continue to contribute to plasticity and regeneration throughout life, even if cell production winds down with age.</p><p>"Our study is exciting because it gives us a new framework for studying these cells," Snyder said. "Even if neurogenesis stops as we age, our study shows that it's still relevant because cells take so long to mature and keep growing for so long. This is really just a different way of looking at them.</p>Optimize Your Brain: The Science of Smarter Eating | Dr. Drew Ramsey | Big Think
<span style="display:block;position:relative;padding-top:56.25%;" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="a5fc406dabd4e2acb818f68be3378bb5"><iframe type="lazy-iframe" data-runner-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/J8BnvIku0kw?rel=0" width="100%" height="auto" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;"></iframe></span><p><a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6659986/#:~:text=Neurogenesis%20in%20adult%20humans%20remains%20a%20controversial%20area%20of%20research%20among%20neuroscientists.&text=While%20some%20researchers%20report%20that,brains%20persists%20into%20old%20age." target="_blank">The challenge of measuring adult neurogenesis</a> is difficult, but it's not impossible. A big part of the solution is knowing what to measure and where. While this new study was performed on rats—and therefore may be a poor predictor of what we'll see in humans—it can direct future research by showing neuroscientists where to look and what to look for.</p><p>And unlike the hard problem of consciousness, unraveling <a href="https://bigthink.com/mind-brain/neurogenesis-in-adults" target="_self">the mysteries of adult neurogenesis</a> may have clinical applications. Better the lifecycle of neurons may reveal how neurological disorders such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease emerge. There's <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6091047/" target="_blank">even research</a> linking disorders such as depression and anxiety to neurogenesis activity. </p><p>This knowledge may lead to new treatments, but if not, it could also reveal a better understanding of how our lifestyles and environments support brain health and regeneration <a href="https://bigthink.com/mind-brain/super-agers-brain" target="_self">throughout human life</a>.</p>
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Should you "hack" your sleep pattern?
Living like a genius and finding ways to "optimize" sleep is not necessarily good for your health. Here's why.
26 June, 2020
- A seemingly common trait of geniuses like Nikola Tesla and Leonardo da Vinci is that they operated (and excelled) on very few hours of sleep per night. BrainCraft's Vanessa Hill explains that while unorthodox sleep patterns may have worked for them, your mileage may vary. Attempting to sleep like a genius could "wreak havoc" on your brain and be detrimental to your health.
- There are three different types of sleep patterns: monophasic sleep (one chunk at night for a recommended 6-8 hours), biphasic sleep (two chunks in a 24-hour period), and polyphasic sleep (three or more chunks in a 24-hour period). While sleeping, you cycle through four stages: two light, one deep, and one REM.
- Switching sleep patterns can disrupt these stages, as can consuming alcohol. So while attempting to maximize your creative time, you may be denying your brain and body the time it needs to recover, which can be dangerous.
Inside the brains of psychopaths
Three scientists examine three dimensions of psychopathy: neurological, social, and criminal.
22 June, 2020
- How are the brains of psychopaths wired differently? In this video, psychologist Kevin Dutton, neuroscientist (and psychopath himself) James Fallon, and professor of psychiatry Michael Stone take the wiring apart.
- In neurotypical people, the amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex inhibit one another to allow for reasonable, moral decision-making. Psychopaths don't have that mechanism.
- Up to 80% of who a psychopath will turn out to be is down to environment. Intelligence, natural aggressiveness, and your family and friends determine whether a psychopath will grow up to make a killing or just "make a killing in the market," as a famous headline once said.
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How dopamine drives brain activity
A specialized MRI sensor reveals the neurotransmitter's influence on neural activity throughout the brain.
13 June, 2020
Matt Cardy/Getty Images
Using a specialized magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sensor, MIT neuroscientists have discovered how dopamine released deep within the brain influences both nearby and distant brain regions.
<p>Dopamine plays many roles in the brain, most notably related to movement, motivation, and reinforcement of behavior. However, until now it has been difficult to study precisely how a flood of dopamine affects neural activity throughout the brain. Using their new technique, the MIT team found that dopamine appears to exert significant effects in two regions of the brain's cortex, including the motor cortex.</p><p>"There has been a lot of work on the immediate cellular consequences of dopamine release, but here what we're looking at are the consequences of what dopamine is doing on a more brain-wide level," says Alan Jasanoff, an MIT professor of biological engineering, brain and cognitive sciences, and nuclear science and engineering. Jasanoff is also an associate member of MIT's McGovern Institute for Brain Research and the senior author of the study.</p><p>The MIT team found that in addition to the motor cortex, the remote brain area most affected by dopamine is the insular cortex. This region is critical for many cognitive functions related to perception of the body's internal states, including physical and emotional states.</p><p>MIT postdoc Nan Li is the lead author of the study, which appears today in <em>Nature</em>.</p>
<h3>Tracking dopamine</h3><p>Like other neurotransmitters, dopamine helps neurons to communicate with each other over short distances. Dopamine holds particular interest for neuroscientists because of its role in motivation, addiction, and several neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease. Most of the brain's dopamine is produced in the midbrain by neurons that connect to the striatum, where the dopamine is released.</p><p>For many years, Jasanoff's lab has been developing tools to study how molecular phenomena such as neurotransmitter release affect brain-wide functions. At the molecular scale, existing techniques can reveal how dopamine affects individual cells, and at the scale of the entire brain, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) can reveal how active a particular brain region is. However, it has been difficult for neuroscientists to determine how single-cell activity and brain-wide function are linked.</p><p>"There have been very few brain-wide studies of dopaminergic function or really any neurochemical function, in large part because the tools aren't there," Jasanoff says. "We're trying to fill in the gaps."</p><p>About 10 years ago, his lab developed MRI sensors that consist of magnetic proteins that can bind to dopamine. When this binding occurs, the sensors' magnetic interactions with surrounding tissue weaken, dimming the tissue's MRI signal. This allows researchers to continuously monitor dopamine levels in a specific part of the brain.</p><p>In their new study, Li and Jasanoff set out to analyze how dopamine released in the striatum of rats influences neural function both locally and in other brain regions. First, they injected their dopamine sensors into the striatum, which is located deep within the brain and plays an important role in controlling movement. Then they electrically stimulated a part of the brain called the lateral hypothalamus, which is a common experimental technique for rewarding behavior and inducing the brain to produce dopamine.</p><p>Then, the researchers used their dopamine sensor to measure dopamine levels throughout the striatum. They also performed traditional fMRI to measure neural activity in each part of the striatum. To their surprise, they found that high dopamine concentrations did not make neurons more active. However, higher dopamine levels did make the neurons remain active for a longer period of time.</p><p>"When dopamine was released, there was a longer duration of activity, suggesting a longer response to the reward," Jasanoff says. "That may have something to do with how dopamine promotes learning, which is one of its key functions."</p>
<h3>Long-range effects</h3><p>After analyzing dopamine release in the striatum, the researchers set out to determine this dopamine might affect more distant locations in the brain. To do that, they performed traditional fMRI imaging on the brain while also mapping dopamine release in the striatum. "By combining these techniques we could probe these phenomena in a way that hasn't been done before," Jasanoff says.</p><p>The regions that showed the biggest surges in activity in response to dopamine were the motor cortex and the insular cortex. If confirmed in additional studies, the findings could help researchers understand the effects of dopamine in the human brain, including its roles in addiction and learning.</p><p>"Our results could lead to biomarkers that could be seen in fMRI data, and these correlates of dopaminergic function could be useful for analyzing animal and human fMRI," Jasanoff says.</p><p>The research was funded by the National Institutes of Health and a Stanley Fahn Research Fellowship from the Parkinson's Disease Foundation. Reprinted with permission of <a href="http://news.mit.edu/" target="_blank">MIT News</a>. Read the <a href="http://news.mit.edu/2019/drug-chemo-effective-tumors-0606" target="_blank">original article</a>.</p>
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How does hypnosis really impact the brain?
A groundbreaking Stanford University study explains the areas of the brain that are impacted by hypnosis.
09 June, 2020
Photo by LILAWA.COM on Shutterstock
- Hypnosis refers to a trance state that is characterized by extreme suggestibility, relaxation, and heightened imagination.
- According to a Stanford University School of Medicine study, there are three areas of our brains that change during a state of hypnosis.
- This groundbreaking study provides information on how hypnosis impacts the brain, which could lead to new and improved pain management and anxiety treatments in the future.
<p>Although hypnosis has been around for <a href="https://www.hypnotherapy-london.info/the-history-of-hypnosis/" target="_blank">hundreds of years</a>, it is still something that even the brightest among us cannot fully understand. The earliest references to hypnosis date back to ancient Egypt and Greece. In fact, the word "hypnos" means "sleep" and refers to the Greek god who is the personification of sleep. </p><p>Our definition of hypnosis refers to a trance state that is characterized by extreme suggestibility, relaxation, and heightened imagination. Most often, hypnosis is compared to a sort of daydream state - you're fully conscious, but you have tuned out most of the stimuli around yourself and are focused intently on a particular subject, most of the time through the power of suggestion</p><ul class="ee-ul"></ul>
Hypnosis: a brief history
<img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzM4MDUzOS9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYyODE0NTIxMn0.8i-niurp_iqtQtLAItVe4bYVzsCvP510dhMITGPs47E/img.jpg?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C52%2C0%2C52&height=700" id="ec42b" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="1af341304e578f5bf20858cb7e872c86" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="swinging pocket watch" />Along the way, there have been many pioneers in the feild of hypnosis research.
Photo by Brian A Jackson on Shutterstock
<p>The "modern father" of hypnosis was Austrian physician Franz Mesmer, who gave us the word "mesmerism", which can be another word referencing a hypnotic state. Mesmer had an idea for which he called "animal magnetism" - and the idea was that there are these kinds of natural energy sources that could be transferred between organisms and objects.</p><p>Along the way, hypnotism has had many other pioneers who have furthered the fascinating phenomenon. One of the most notable is James Braid, an eye doctor based in Scotland who became intrigued with the idea of hypnosis when he discovered a patient in his waiting room had fallen under something of a trance after staring at a lamp. He gave the patient come commands, and the patient obliged, remaining in a trace-like state the entire time. </p><p>Braid's fascination grew and through more tests, he determined that getting a patient to fixate on something was one of the most important components to hypnosis. He later would publish a book on what we now know as the <a href="https://books.google.be/books/about/The_Discovery_of_Hypnosis.html?id=Vs35STwQYQoC&redir_esc=y" target="_blank">discovery of modern hypnosis</a>.</p><p>Later, James Esdaile, a British surgeon based in India during the mid-1800s established that this kind of trance hypnotic state was extremely useful in pain relief practices. He performed hundreds of major operations using hypnotism as his only anesthetic. When he returned to England in an attempt to convince the medical establishments of his findings, they paid no mind to his theory in favor of new chemical anesthetics such as morphine, which was <a href="https://www.drugfreeworld.org/drugfacts/painkillers/a-short-history.html" target="_blank">relatively new at the time</a>. This is where the use of hypnotics for medicinal purposes halted and much of the reason why hypnosis is considered an alternative approach to medicine in today's society.</p><p>Jumping forward to the 1900s, Frenchman Emile Coué moved away from the conventional approaches that had been pioneered with hypnotism and began his work with the use of auto-suggestion. </p><p>He is most famous for the phrase: <em>"Day by day, in every way, I am getting better and better." </em>This technique was one of the first instances where affirmation hypnosis was used and it has been growing through various counseling programs and therapy techniques ever since.</p><p>In modern times, one of the most recognized authorities on clinical hypnosis remains to be Milton Erikson, a well-known psychotherapist who did most of his work around 1950-1980. He was fascinated with human psychology and devised countless innovative ways to use hypnosis in his clinical practices. </p><img type="lazy-image" data-runner-src="https://assets.rebelmouse.io/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzM4MDU0Mi9vcmlnaW4ucG5nIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYxOTA2ODk0N30.3OCQkoOCP2XS04Tn7d2x-EdhrMx1ijM9gyY7zOGhR7A/img.png?width=1245&coordinates=0%2C0%2C0%2C0&height=700" id="a5daf" class="rm-shortcode" data-rm-shortcode-id="896e0aa4f3bff1e857422439640ffb18" data-rm-shortcode-name="rebelmouse-image" alt="purple brain with yellow circles around it as a concept for hypnosis" />
Scientists scanned the brains of 57 people during a guided hypnosis session.
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<p><strong>Changes found in three areas of the brain during hypnosis may suggest future alternative treatments for anxiety and pain management.</strong><br><br>Over the years, hypnosis has gained a lot of traction and respectability within both the medical and psychotherapy professions. According to a 2016 Stanford University School of Medicine study, there are three areas of our brains that change during a state of hypnosis - and this could actually be used to benefit us.</p><p>Scientists scanned the brains of 57 people during a guided hypnosis session, similar to one that may be used to help treat anxiety, pain, or trauma. </p><p><strong>First, there is a decrease in dorsal anterior cingulate activity. </strong></p><p>This is part of the brain's salience network that is responsible for <a href="https://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Anterior+Cingulate+Cortex" target="_blank">psychological functions</a> like decision making, evaluation processes, and emotional regulation as well as physiological functions such as blood pressure and heart rate. </p><p><strong>Next, there is an increase in the connection between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the insula. </strong></p><p>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/dorsolateral-prefrontal-cortex" target="_blank">dorsolateral prefrontal cortex</a> is associated with executive functions such as working memory and self-control. The <a href="https://www.spinalcord.com/insular-cortex" target="_blank">insula</a> is a small region of the cerebral cortex that plays a significant role in pain perception, social engagements, emotions, and autonomic control. </p><p>This is described by the lead researcher of the study as a kind of "brain-body connection" that helps the brain process and control what's going on in the body. </p><p><strong>Finally, there are reduced connections between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the medial prefrontal cortex. </strong></p><p>The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex becomes less connected to the medial prefrontal cortex and the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/32/1/215" target="_blank">posterior cingulate cortex</a>, both of which are strongly associated with neural activity and cognitive tasks.</p><p>This decrease very likely correlates to the disconnect between someone's actions and their awareness of their actions, according to the lead researcher on the project. </p><p><strong>How does this change the way we view hypnosis?</strong></p><p>Understanding exactly which areas of the brain are impacted during hypnosis can pave the way for groundbreaking research into the use of hypnosis for medicinal purposes.</p><p>"Now that we know which brain regions are involved," says David Spiegel, MD, professor and researcher on the project, "we may be able to use this knowledge to alter someone's capacity to be hypnotized or the effectiveness of the hypnosis for problems such as pain control." </p><p>While more research is needed, the study is certainly a groundbreaking head-start in what could eventually be known as hypnotic treatments for things like anxiety, trauma and pain management. </p><p>"A treatment that combines brain stimulation with hypnosis could improve known analgesic effects of hypnosis and potentially even replace addictive and side-effect-laden painkillers and anti-anxiety medications," explains Spiegel. </p><div class="rm-shortcode amazon-assets-widget" data-rm-shortcode-id="8cd836dafa4225434a1b472f28530847" contenteditable="false">
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